Key Takeaways:

- The EU should try to use its position as a more neutral actor in East Asia to deepen a trilateral cybersecurity framework - encouraging closer Japan-ROK cybersecurity cooperation, strengthening a more resilient and coordinated democratic front against the rising tide of digital authoritarianism

- Seoul and Tokyo to jointly counter DPRK cyber threats, signaling a potential shift toward region-led cybersecurity collaboration beyond the U.S. framework.

- With parallel Security & Defence Partnerships (2024) and Digital Partnerships (2022) already in place with both Japan and the ROK, plus a PIPA–GDPR data adequacy agreement, the EU has the infrastructure to quickly build a cohesive trilateral framework to defend shared democratic norms in cyberspace.

Concern about the security of the technical, especially digital and information technology infrastructure, has become an increasingly central security concern over the last few decades. Technical cybersecurity concerns and how to better respond to cyberattacks, hacking attempts, or the increase in cybercrime are now regularly discussed in bilateral cybersecurity dialogues, and the broader concern about how cyberspace is governed and regulated, and how international laws and regulations can and should apply in cyberspace and how data and information can be better protected has long been debated in regional and global forums.

In an increasingly volatile and unpredictable geopolitical landscape, and because highly digitalized economies such as the ROK, Japan, the U.S., and the EU, and their member states have distinct cyber-attack vectors and ways to respond to them, most have set up bilateral cyber dialogues and similar processes to deepen their cooperation. Securing digital and information technology infrastructure has become a central concern for all advanced economies. Therefore, the European Union (EU), Japan, and the Republic of Korea (ROK) share similar cyber threats. Over the last decade, the EU has begun to build bilateral cybersecurity partnerships with Japan and the ROK; direct cooperation between Seoul and Tokyo remains strangely underdeveloped. This gap persists despite facing identical adversaries in cyberspace, creating a significant vulnerability in the collective security of like-minded nations.

This article argues that the EU, having established itself as a trusted and neutral partner to both, should try to use its position as a more neutral actor in East Asia to deepen a trilateral cybersecurity framework. By taking advantage of its institutional ties and shared normative values, the EU is interested in encouraging closer Japan-ROK cybersecurity cooperation, strengthening a more resilient and coordinated democratic front against the rising tide of digital authoritarianism.

Continued US-Centric Reality of ROK-Japan Cybersecurity Cooperation?

Both Japan and the ROK have been targets of persistent cyber aggression from North Korea, whose state-sponsored hacking syndicates, such as the Lazarus Group, have a long history of targeting their critical infrastructure. These attacks range from theft from Japanese crypto-asset companies to fund the regime's weapons programs[1] to sophisticated zero-day exploits against South Korean financial entities[2].

Despite this shared existential threat, bilateral cooperation has been historically limited, with the primary venue for collaboration being the trilateral framework with the United States. The August 2023 Camp David summit between the U.S., Japan, and the ROK leaders finally formalized a common concern over the DPRK's illicit cyber activities. A key outcome was the establishment of the Japan-U.S.-ROK Trilateral Diplomatic Working Group on North Korea's Cyber Threats in November 2023 to better coordinate an effective response to North Korea's cyber activities that are abused as a critical source of funding its nuclear and WMD programs, and blocking North Korea's cyber-enabled sanctions evasion[3]. This working group has since become the main engine of cooperation, focusing on enhancing incident response, sharing threat intelligence on cryptocurrency theft, and crafting robust joint defense strategies.

Significantly, this U.S.-led initiative has also highlighted a direct link to European security. A joint statement issued by the working group in August 2025 noted that North Korean IT workers are targeting clients not only in East Asia and North America but also in Europe[4], which might convince Europe. For the ROK, this addresses one of the core differences between the EU-Japan and the EU-ROK cybersecurity cooperation, namely the centrality of the national security, defense policy, and cyber threat aspect of cybersecurity cooperation with any partner, including the EU. While the EU-Japan cybersecurity dialogue has traditionally focused more on international cyber norms and the free and open internet, those with the ROK had a more explicit focus on threats from North Korea.

The EU's Parallel Partnerships: A Foundation for Trilateralism?

While the U.S. has acted as the central pillar for ROK-Japan security ties, the EU has quietly and effectively built the foundations for a complementary track. Over the past decade, Brussels has pursued a dual-track engagement, deepening its cybersecurity cooperation with both nations in parallel.

With Japan, the relationship has evolved from regular Cyber Dialogues, initiated in 2014, to a comprehensive Security and Defence Partnership in 2024, which explicitly includes commitments on cyber defense and resilience[5]. This partnership aims to coordinate efforts to promote a UN framework for responsible state behavior and implement confidence-building measures within the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). At the July 2025 EU-Japan summit, both sides stressed the need to improve situational awareness, advance cyber capacity building, and combat foreign information manipulation and interference (FIMI)[6].

The EU's engagement with the ROK has followed a near-identical timeline. Regular cyber dialogues began in 2015, focusing on strengthening collaboration on global cyber issues and capacity building in forums like ASEAN, the UN, and NATO[7]. Ultimately, this culminated in a parallel Security and Defence Partnership in 2024[8]. A crucial element of the EU-ROK relationship has been deep regulatory alignment. South Korea harmonized its Personal Information Protection Act (PIPA) with the EU's GDPR, leading to a data adequacy agreement that facilitates the trusted and seamless transfer of personal data, a key development to strengthen digital trust[9].

The latest developments are security-focused initiatives such as the EU-Japan Digital Partnership and the EU-ROK Digital Partnership, both established in 2022[10]. These partnerships are central to the European Commission's 2030 Digital Compass strategy, which seeks to promote a human-centric digital agenda globally by forming alliances with like-minded partners[11]. They provide a formal structure for cooperation from semiconductors and AI to data governance and cybersecurity, demonstrating a shared vision for a digital society guided by democratic values.

A Common Front Against Digital Authoritarianism

A strong normative alignment reinforces the potential for a deeper trilateral partnership. The EU, Japan, and the ROK are all liberal democracies committed to the rule of law, human rights, and a free and open internet. They are deeply concerned about the aggressive cyber activities and authoritarian governance models. This shared worldview has led to close coordination in global forums like the United Nations Group of Governmental Experts (UNGGE) and the Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) and bilateral cooperation on combating international cybercrime and supporting capacity building in third countries[12]. This common ground provides a solid basis for moving beyond shared principles to coordinated action.

The Path to Future Cooperation from Bilateral to Trilateral?

While structural and historical issues remain difficult, in the case of Europe, they have mostly been overcome by the necessity of solving common challenges; recent developments suggest a potential turning point for ROK-Japan relations. In a significant breakthrough, the first joint press statement in 17 years, issued after the ROK-Japan summit in August 2025, explicitly emphasized the need to "jointly address North Korea's illegal cyber activities"[13], which might indicate that Tokyo and Seoul have begun to treat cybersecurity as a common challenge.

The EU can play an essential role as a neutral convenor to facilitate a trilateral dialogue, not replacing the existing US-ROK-Japan trilateral. One way could be informal, expert-level meetings on the sidelines of the existing Digital Partnership Councils, and joint capacity-building initiatives in Southeast Asia, where all three partners have a shared interest in promoting a secure digital ecosystem. Co-organizing workshops for ASEAN nations would serve a strategic purpose and build the operational trust necessary for deeper intelligence sharing. Given the severity of the threats from North Korea, China, and Russia, isolated national efforts are no longer sufficient. The EU has already laid the diplomatic and institutional groundwork. The next logical step is to weave these strong bilateral threads into a resilient trilateral, creating a powerful coalition of democracies to defend the rules-based order in cyberspace.